Strained Allies

This thesis analyzes relations between the U.S. and Japan from an American perspective in the 1990s by asking which economic, geopolitical, and public discourse developments shaped U.S. foreign policy towards Japan between 1990 and 1999. The evidence points to a dynamic interaction among these three dimensions. On the economic front, a widening U.S. trade deficit and what Washington considered unfair Japanese trade practices heightened tensions. President Bush relied mainly on diplomacy, but his efforts brought limited results. President Clinton adopted a tougher stance, which secured some concessions, although Japan refused to accept strict import quotas. The creation of the World Trade Organization in 1995 provided an independent forum for resolving disputes and helped reduce frictions. A coordinated response to the 1997 Asian financial crisis encouraged further cooperation. Geopolitically, the end of the Cold War led to a rethinking of the security alliance. Bush urged Japan to assume a larger international role, but Tokyo was unwilling to do so. The rising power of China and the nuclear threat posed by North Korea gave the alliance renewed purpose. After the 1995 Okinawa rape incident, Clinton and Prime Minister Hashimoto worked together to stabilize the partnership. Finally, trade disputes and Japan's limited contribution to the Gulf War fed anti-Japanese sentiment in the U.S., influencing public debate and policy choices. By integrating these three strands, the thesis shows that U.S. foreign policy in the 1990s cannot be attributed to a single factor. Although economic and strategic concerns predominated, public opinion also played a significant role in shaping bilateral relations.