Destroying the Feminine Ideal

This research analyzes how girl zines in the 1990s United Kingdom constructed femininity. These self-publications offered girls and women an alternative channel wherein they could challenge traditional patriarchal depictions of femininity. The study situates these zines within the larger field of third wave feminism, which is characterized by a greater freedom of gender expression, a reclamation of hyperfemininity, and DIY (Do-It-Yourself) activism. Within the pages of these zines, femininity is constructed as a multifaceted and layered concept; women are constructed as beings in their own right rather than objects for the ‘male gaze.’ This analysis is framed through the lens of Mikhail Bakhtin’s carnivalesque literary theory, which posits that such materials hold a revolutionary potential to overturn the dominant world order. Through a qualitative analysis of fifteen zines from the 1990s United Kingdom, this research aims to understand how these materials utilized the carnivalesque elements ‘the grotesque body’ and ‘the upside-down world.’ It additionally examines how these zinesters explored realms which have historically been reserved for men, such as anger, humor, profanity, and obscenity. Through this qualitative analysis, certain recurring themes are identified, such as body image, eating disorders, ‘girl power,’ menstruation, and more. Key findings reveal that the constructions of femininity in these girl zines contributed not just to an ever-evolving feminist body of work, but to a carnivalesque canon of literature. Through this analysis, a nuanced picture comes into focus about how ‘90s third wave feminists enacted a wide range of visual and linguistic resistance. Although the girl zine movement of the 1990s had declined by the end of the decade, their constructions of femininity continue to hold significance for modern day feminists. By reconceptualizing this media as a subversive, feminist, and revolutionary art form, these 1990s publications can act as a guide and inspiration for fourth wave feminists to understand how their struggle fits into the larger feminist discourse.